Roman Aqueducts Essays - Water, Ancient Roman Architecture

Roman Aqueducts Ryan Gaddis Pozzuolana and Roman Aqueducts Western Civilization to 1660 Roman engineering was mainly of the civil type. The Romans built roads, bridges, baths, stadiums, and other public buildings. One of the most amazing feats of engineering that the Romans achieved was the building of the aqueducts. An aqueduct is an artificial channel through which water is guided to the place where it is used. Most aqueducts of ancient times were built of stone, brick or pozzuolana, a mixture of limestone and volcanic dust. Rome itself had eleven aqueducts, ranging in length from 10 to 60 miles. They were all built between 312 BC and 226 AD. Rome was the only ancient city reasonably supplied with water. By A.D. 97, nine aqueducts brought about 85 million gallons of water per day from mountain springs. Frontinus, Roman was ardent concerning Rome's aqueducts: With such an array of indispensable structures carrying so many waters, compare, if you will, the idle Pyramids or the useless, though famous, works of the Greeks! While the Romans added almost nothing to pure science, they were masters of applied science. They had no understanding of formulas or tensile strength, but they could still figure out what worked and what didn't. Mostly, this was achieved by trial and error. The invention of pozzuolana was one such example. The early Roman cement was made of a wet mixture of lime and sand, with small pieces of stone, pottery, or tile embedded in it. This type of cement was used mainly for mortared joints. Such cement crumbled easily. Later, Romans began adding volcanic ash from the nearby Vesuvius. This new cement was much stronger and harder than any previous cement, and it also dried underwater. When dry, it had all of the properties of strong stone. The Smithsonian Institute has a section of Roman aqueduct made from pozzuolana that was laid about 80 AD. When it was dug up eighteen centuries later, it was discovered that it still behaved like stone. It did not crumble when drilled or chipped, and i n fact it was stronger than many stones would have been after being subjected to the centuries. While pozzuolana was a great discovery in ancient times, it was not used for building much of the aqueduct structure. Huge and elaborate forms would have been needed to cast the pozzuolana into the supporting columns or arches. The only thing needed to build of stone is a strong footing. Also, pozzuolana is strongest under compression. Like modern concrete, it has a very low tensile strength. This means that conduits made of pozzuolana that had to carry water pressure would easily burst. Because of these factors, pozzuolana was used mainly only to build the actual channel that carried the water. Most of the Roman aqueducts were not made with pipe or pressurized closed conduits. Instead the Romans built their water delivery system non-pressurized. There were multiple reasons for this. First of all, large metal conduits were not able to be built at the time. The largest metal conduits mentioned in Roman history were about 100 inches in circumference. This is not nearly enough to supply the amount of water that the Romans needed. Secondly, it was very hard to control leakage in the free-flowing channels, let alone pressurized conduits. It was estimated that half of the water disappeared through leakage and theft from its source to final destination. The water ran through channels that were on average about 3 ?' wide by 6' deep. To keep the water moving, the channels had to have a grade of at least two or three feet to every mile. Because these were channels and not pressurized conduits, the Romans had to cut through every ridge that was too high and build bridges over every valley that was too low. The arcades or aqueduct bridges were all constructed in about the same manner. First, a row of tall piers were set in. On top of these pier, a series of small arches was placed. Above these arches was the actual water channel. This channel was constructed of pozzuolana, with an arched roof. When an aqueduct crossed a very deep valley or gorge, two or even three sets of arches were constructed. When people think

What is an Unreliable Narrator Definition and 6 Real Examples

What is an Unreliable Narrator Definition and 6 Real Examples What is an Unreliable Narrator: Definition and Examples In literature, an unreliable narrator is a character who tells a story with a lack of credibility. There are different types of unreliable narrators (more on that later), and the presence of one can be revealed to readers in varying ways - sometimes immediately, sometimes gradually, and sometimes later in the story when a plot twist leaves us wondering if we’ve maybe been a little too trusting.While the term â€Å"unreliable narrator† was first coined by literary critic Wayne C. Booth in his 1961 book, The Rhetoric of Fiction, it’s a literary device that writers have been putting to good use for much longer than the past 80 years. For example, "The Tell-Tale Heart" published by Edgar Allan Poe in 1843 utilizes this storytelling tool, as does Wuthering Heights, published in 1847.But wait, is any narrator really reliable?This discussion can lead us down a proverbial rabbit hole. In a sense, no, there aren’t any 100% completely reliable narrators. The  "Rashomon Effect† tells us that our subjective perceptions prohibit us from ever having a totally clear memory of past events. If each person subjectively remembers something that happened, how do we know who is right? "Indeed, many writers have used the Rashomon Effect to tell stories from multiple first-person perspectives - leaving readers to determine whose record is most believable." (Check out As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner for an example).For the purpose of this article, however, we will refer to narrators who are purposefully unreliable for a specific narrative function. How to write an unreliable narrator that has us on our toes and reading between the lines. Literary function of an unreliable narratorFiction that makes us question our own perceptions can be powerful. An unreliable narrator can create a lot of grey areas and blur the lines of reality, allowing us to come to our own conclusions.Fallible storytellers can also create tension by keeping readers on their toes - wondering if there’s more under the surface, and reading between the lines to decipher what that is. Unreliable  narrators can make for intriguing, complex characters: depending on the narrator’s motivation for clouding the truth, readers may also feel more compelled to keep reading to figure out why the narrator is hiding things.Finally, all unreliable narrators are first-person: they live in the world of the story and will have an inherent bias or perhaps even an agenda. While you may find an unreliable narrator who's written in the second-person or third-person point of view, this is generally rare.PRO-TIP: If you'd like to see the different point of views in action, check out this post that has 50+ point of view examples.Types of unreliable narratorsJust like trying to classify every type of character would be an endless pursuit, so is trying to list every type of unreliable narrator. That said, we've divided these questionable raconteurs into three general types to better understand how they work as a literary device.1) Deliberately Unreliable: Narrators who are aware of their deceptionThis type of narrator is intentionally lying to the reader because, well, they can. They have your attention, the point of view is theirs, and they’ll choose what to do with it, regardless of any â€Å"responsibility† they might have to the reader. (The film adaptation of Room, image: Universal Pictures)Forrest Gump by Winston Groom Forrest is another example of a narrator who’s not deliberately unreliable in order to pull the wool over the readers’ eyes or to â€Å"save face.† From the outset, we are aware that Forrest doesn’t comprehend things like the â€Å"average† person does, and we’re aware that we might not be able to take everything he says at face value. This is confirmed when Forrest begins detailing his life, which is peppered with stories about major events from history that he was apparently intimately involved in. We can’t be certain that he’s not telling the truth, but it would be quite the life if he is. Six examples of unreliable narrators and how to write your own fallible storyteller. An unreliable narrator breaks the conventional relationship of trust between a reader and a storyteller. However, the key is that you don’t want to shatter that trust entirely, because you’re likely to lose the reader. Ensure your unreliable narrator has a clear purpose for being unreliable, employ just enough mist around the narrator’s accounts to put question marks in our minds, give us the underlying sense that there’s more to the story, and you’ll be able to foster a connection between the reader and narrator that has the pages of your book flipping.Who are some of your favorite unreliable narrators from literature? Have you ever tried writing one yourself? Leave any thoughts or questions in the comments below!

Do Colleges Use Weighted or Unweighted GPA

Do Colleges Use Weighted or Unweighted GPA SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips High schools may record students' GPAs as weighted or unweighted. But which type of GPA is taken more seriously in the college admissions process? In this article, I’ll provide an overview of the differences between weighted and unweighted GPAs and tell you which type is more important. What’s the Difference Between Weighted and Unweighted GPA? First off, you should know what constitutes weighted and unweighted GPA in high school. Traditional GPAs are unweighted, which means they'remeasured on a scale from 0 to 4.0.A 4.0 is an A average, a 3.0 is a B average, a 2.0 is a C average, a 1.0 is a D average, and anything below that represents a failing grade. Unweighted GPAs do not take the levels of your classes into account.An A in an AP or honors class will translate into a 4.0 GPA, and so will an A in a low-level class. Basically, an unweighted GPA won’t change based on the types of classes you’re taking; it represents your grades in isolation. Weighted GPAs are a bit more complicated.Many high schools now record weighted GPAs instead of standard unweighted GPAs.Weighted GPAs are measured on a scale that goes up higher than 4.0 to account for more difficult classes.For many schools, this means a 0-5.0 scale,but some scales go up higher (like to 6.0). In the lowest-level classes, grades will still stand for the same numbers as they would on an unweighted GPA scale (i.e., an A is a 4.0, a B is a 3.0, etc.).However, in honors or AP classes, an A will translate into a 5.0 GPA, a B will be a 4.0, and so on. If your school has mid-level classes, an A might translate into a 4.5 GPA. Keep in mind that these are general estimates.If your school records weighted GPAs, check its specific policies.Weighted GPAs are used in an effort to present a more accurate picture of academic abilities based on the rigor of a student's coursework. Your A+ in Intro to Yoga will only get you so far. Do some mindful breathing to help yourself accept this. Which GPA Do Colleges Care About? Of course, every college is different, but in general colleges care more about your record of coursework thanyour GPA out of context.For this reason, I can’t say that colleges necessarily care â€Å"more† about unweighted or weighted GPA.Between the two, weighted GPA provides more useful information, but they will still look closely at your transcript instead of just taking your GPA at face value. Your GPA is an overview of how you did in high school, but every admissions department will dig deeper (unless your GPA is exceptionally low- think below 2.0) before making a blanket judgment based solely on that number,whether it's weighted or unweighted. This is because the GPA scales of different high schools can't be compared directly. Some schools might count honors and AP classes as "high level" for weighted GPAs, and some might only count APs. Some AP classes are also easier than others. It wouldn't be fair for colleges to give a student who earned an A in a notoriously difficult class like AP Physics the same credit as a student who earned an A in AP Psychology, even if they have the same weighted GPA. Colleges want to see that you have pushed yourself to take on academic challenges and managed to grow over time.If your academic record demonstrates increasing difficulty of coursework, this will look impressive to colleges, even if your GPA isn’t stellar.If you have a 4.0 but remained in all the least challenging classes in high school, colleges will be less impressed since you didn’t push yourself further academically. even though you were clearly capable of doing so. If you’re getting all As in low-level classes, don’t stay complacent just because you have a good GPA.It’s absolutely worth it to move up a level and challenge yourself, even if it leads to a slight drop in your GPA. Colleges look at the whole picture, and they will make note of the fact that you forced yourself to leave your comfort zone and grow intellectually. This plant is a metaphor for your brain over the course of high school. What Do College Admissions Departments Say About GPA? Just to make sure we're on the right track, let's check the official policies of a range of schools. Here are some quotes about GPA taken from the admissions websites for Harvard, Ithaca College, Stanford, Claremont McKenna College, and the University of Texas at Austin. Harvard Admissions Department According to the admissions website, here are two key questions Harvard admissions officers ask themselves when reviewing potential applicants: â€Å"Have you reached your maximum academic and personal potential?† â€Å"Have you been stretching yourself?† Obviously, to get into Harvard, you'll need a great GPA.However, notice thatthey don’t say, â€Å"Your unweighted GPA must be at least 3.8,† or make any sort of concrete statement about numbers.What they want to see is that you’ve been constantly striving for more advanced learning opportunities and have also been pushing yourself to your limits academically. Students who've grown a lot in high school and who were motivated to take difficult classes are probably students who will continue to do the same in college.This demonstrates my point in the previous section that colleges really want to see students who have taken challenging coursework and proved themselves to be dedicated to fulfilling their academic potential. Harvard College Ithaca College Admissions Department Here’s what Ithaca's admissions department has to say about its admissions process: â€Å"An Ithaca College education requires that every student be actively engaged in their academic experiences. ...We are most focused on the rigor of your curriculum and the level of success you’ve demonstrated in your academic work.† Again, the admissions department is looking for students who were engaged in their high school coursework and are interested in learning more.Though grades are important, the level of your coursework and your demonstrated academic growth will also go a long way toward impressing admissions officers. Ithaca College Want to build the best possible college application with your GPA? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in. Stanford Admissions Department According toStanford, what itvalues most in its applicants is as follows: "The primary criterion for admission to Stanford is academic excellence. We look for your preparation and potential to succeed. We expect you to challenge yourself throughout high school and to do very well. ... There is no minimum GPA or test score; nor is there any specific number of AP or honors courses you must have on your transcript in order to be admitted to Stanford." As we saw with Harvard, academic excellence is a given- you obviously need to have strong grades in order to have a solid chance at getting into Stanford. That said, Stanford is clear that "there is no minimum GPA."Once again, the important idea here is that you're proving you have the potential to succeed and challenge yourself- not that you're necessarily getting As in every single class you take. Stanford University Claremont McKenna College Admissions Department Here’s what Claremont McKenna says about its admissions process: "Competitive candidates for admission pursue the most demanding course work possible, receive strong grades, and are highly regarded by their teachers and counselors. The minimum requirements are: English: Four years. Mathematics: Three years, preferably four. Candidates should recognize that mathematical skill is as important for professionals in government and economics as it is in engineering and the physical sciences. Foreign Language: At least three years. History: At least one year. Science: At least two years required, three strongly preferred." This brings up a good point: many schools might not have GPA requirements, but they do require applicants to take certain classes in high school. Once again, this emphasizes coursework over straight GPA in the admissions process.â€Å"Strong grades† are expected, but a desire for students who have pursued â€Å"the most demanding course work† is far more important. Claremont McKenna College University of Texas at Austin Admissions Department Finally, UT Austin says the following on its admissions website: "To be competitive for admission, freshman applicants must complete or be on track to complete certain high school coursework: Language Arts:Four credits Mathematics:Four credits Science:Four credits Social Studies:Four credits Foreign Language:Two credits Fine Arts:One credit Physical Education:One credit Electives:Six credits" Like Claremont McKenna College, UT Austin requires specific coursework in high school. In fact, the school doesn't say much at all about GPA on its website, indicating that GPA alone is not a particularly important part of admissions- rather,the courses you take are important. UT Austin (Stephen M. Scott/Flickr) Conclusion: Colleges and Weighted vs. Unweighted GPA Ultimately, you shouldn’t worry too much about whether colleges will look at your weighted or unweighted GPA.The value of your GPA, whether weighted or unweighted, isn’t the final word on whether you've demonstrated your academic potential in high school. Instead, focus on your coursework. Have you been consistently challenging yourself and living up to your abilities? Are you making the most of the academic opportunities your school offers? If you can answer yes to these two questions, you’re on your way to success in college admissions! What's Next? Worried about how your GPA will impact your chances of getting into college? Check out this list of the best colleges with less competitive GPA requirements. Not sure whether your GPA is considered high or low? Read my article on what constitutes a good and bad GPA for college admissions. For a complete overview of how GPA is calculated and what it means for you, take a look at this article. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Module 2 SLP Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Module 2 SLP - Coursework Example The clipboard need to uses Mckinsey 7s framework. The framework got its name from a consulting company, Mckinsey and company, which had conducted research and industry (Pascale & Athos, 1981; Peters &Waterman, 1982). The model identified seven variables which the authors called ‘levers’ all began with the letter ‘S’. The seven variables include structure, strategy, system, skills, style, staff and shared values. Other variables exist but the 7S are very important because they can neutralize the effects of other variables and external environment (Elson 2012). Structure is the skeleton of the organizational chart. Strategy is the plan or course of action used in allocating resources to achieve identified over time. The framework defined system as a routinized process and procedures followed within the organization. The staffs are the personnel who perform vary activities in the organization. The key managers are also important in the way they behave to achieve organizational goal. The behaviour of managers is termed as style. Shared value is the glue that binds all the other 6S in an organization. Shared value has a significant meaning or guiding concepts that organizational members share. Most companies believed that the variables consisted of soft variables and important variables. It doesn’t mean that the soft variables were less important. It only meant that the other variables must be considered first before the soft variables can be put into perspectives. The soft variables include; skills, style and shared values (Elson 2012). It is also believed that the soft variables can only affect decisions internally when the other variables (structure, strategy and the system) could affect decisions both internally and externally when dealing with marketing and sales strategy in the region. The 7S framework doesn’t mention the external environment because they believe that the strength and

Deciding Right from Wrong Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Deciding Right from Wrong - Essay Example However, even after thousands of years, we are still unable to make universal principles with respect to rights and wrongs. The rights of some people are the wrongs of the other people. For example, keeping more than one wife is a sin or a wrong thing for Christians whereas Muslims find nothing wrong in it. Based on individual perceptions, many scholars and philosophers tried to segregate between the rights and wrongs with the help of some ethical theories. This paper briefly analyses the rights and wrongs with the help of some ethical theories formulated by some eminent scholars and philosophers. â€Å"The concepts of ethics fall into two main categories; notions having to do with morality, virtue, rationality, and other ideals or standards of conduct and motivation; notions pertaining to human good or well-being and the "good life" generally† (Slote, n.d, p.2). Killing of enemies in a war is perceived as a right thing even though killing of innocent people are perceived as a wrong thing. Moreover, capital punishment is accepted as a morally right thing by many countries whereas some other countries reject capital punishment, purely on moral grounds. In other words, some people believe that killing of an antisocial element is good for the rest of the people in the society and hence such killing should be made legal, considering the future wellbeing of the other people. Most of the countries give capital punishments to terrorists because of the above notion. However, some people are of the view that taking the life of another person cannot be justified under any circumstances because of the immense value associated with human life. In their opinion, we are only creations and only the creator has the authority to make any modifications on our lives. Moreover, killing of criminals will deny them the opportunity to correct themselves. Some of the Muslims have the belief that killing of enemies of their religion is a sacred act. In short, killing of people i s justified under some circumstances by some people whereas others object it under any circumstances. In other words, moral theories associated with killing of other people are widely differing in different places. â€Å"The categorical imperative of Immanuel Kant, tells us that we may not use or mistreat other people as a means either to our own happiness or to that of other people† (Slote, n.d, p.2). Moreover, Kant argued that "Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law"(Categorical Imperative, n.d). Kant believed that the moral principles were applicable universally. In his opinion, it is impossible to have a moral principle right at some places and wrong at other places. Nobody knows from where we come and where we go after death. As per Kantian theory, human being has a special role in the creations and hence moral principles with respect to human cannot be applied to other living things. However Kant strongly criticized the segregation of good and evil based on the personal beliefs or the religious beliefs. In his opinion,"Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end†(Categorical Imperative, n. d.) â€Å"Utilitarian consequentialists regard pleasure or the satisfaction of desire as the sole, intrinsic human good, and pain or dissatisfaction as the sole,

Motivated and Enthusiastic Child Psychologist Influences

Motivated and Enthusiastic Child Psychologist Influences Simranpreet K. Sidhu Introduction Child psychology is considered as a ‘new thing’ in the psychology workforce. And not many universities worldwide have a postgraduate course for child psychology. Definition of child psychologist Psychiatry and psychology are quite clearly like a pair of brothers with similar heritage in the general family life (Blain, 1946). Both pediatric psychology and clinical child psychology deal with children and they are both specialties within clinical psychology. In the present, instead of observing, recording, classifying what children do, child psychologists began to study how children do what they do. It took a decade from the development of a new importance in clinical child psychology for pediatric psychology to develop (Tuma, 1975). Pediatric psychology was defined by Wright (1967) as ‘any psychologist who finds himself dealing mainly with children in a medical setting which is nonpsychiatric in nature’ (Routh, 1975). The research and practices of Clinical Child Psychology are focused on understanding, preventing, diagnosing and treating psychological, cognitive, emotional, developmental, behavioral and family problems of children. Of particular importance to clinical child and adolescent psychologists is a scientific understanding of the basic psychological needs of children and adolescents and how the family and other social contexts influence socio-emotional adjustment, cognitive development, behavioral adaptation and health status of children and adolescents. There is an essential emphasis on a strong empirical research base recognizing the need for the documentation and further development of evidence-based assessments and treatments in clinical child and adolescent psychology (Clinical Child Psychology Formal Specialty Definition, 2005 as cited in Jackson, Alberts Roberts, 2010). History of child psychologist Child psychology is a product of ‘new marriage’ between clinical psychology and pediatrics as stated in an article written by Jerome Kagan in 1965. It is known that the existence of clinical psychology was first declared by Lightner Witmer in 1896 (Watson, 1953 as cited in Routh, 1975). National Institute of Child Health and Human Development was founded in 1962, which therefore supported much medical and psychological research related to child development and some professional training in pediatric psychology. In 1966, the first formal graduate program to train ‘pediatric psychologists’ was begun by the Departments of Pediatrics and Psychology at the University of Iowa (Routh, 1969) as cited in (Routh, 1975), with funding from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. The year 1967 was a landmark for pediatric psychology where in that year, Logan Wright’s article, ‘Pediatric Psychology, A Role Model’, appeared in the American Psychologist (Routh, 1975). The potential role of child psychologists in the medical system was first described by Anderson (1930). Kagan emphasized the early detection of childhood disorders and especially each of the following: (a) the relationship between prenatal and perinatal abnormalities and future behavioral disturbance; (b) the early detection of severe childhood disturbance, especially the schizophrenias; (c) the early detection of psychosocial problems including academic retardation, psychopathy, delinquency, psychosomatic disturbances and phobias during the preschool and early school years; and (d) the application of theoretical knowledge and empirical generalizations to therapeutic regimens for children in his article named ‘new marriage’. Logan Wright saw that pediatric psychologists as being more behaviorally oriented than clinical-child psychologists (Mesibov, 1983). Reason for choosing to be a child psychologist Child psychology is a very interesting field for one to master in. If one loves children, they may want to consider child psychology as their job will be revolving around children. Children are God’s gift, they are miracle for hope. Children are just innocent angels. In the past, most of the psychological problems only occur during the adulthood period but not for children. But in the present, many roots of psychological problems kick off from childhood period but it is unknown, unrecognizable and not diagnosed until adulthood. In the very recent, problems starts off from when one is an embryo itself with many effects such as environmental pressure and drug abuse influencing the embryo and the mother-to-be. Child psychology is a very important field nowadays because most parents are not able to cope and handle their children. They need some form of advices and ideas on what to do and how. Some parents may also not know if their child has any psychological problem which may wor sen in the future if it is not recognized since young. Children are the future leaders of the country, we need to mould them from the beginning itself rather than when they are much older. It is no doubt a very challenging task, but one would be learning all along the whole process. Learning is a never ending process. Another main reason would be there is limited or no child psychologist at all in Malaysia, so it is very crucial that we have one or more. In this guided literature review, I will be relating child psychology to motivation as learnt in industrial and organizational psychology. Definition of motivation Motivation is the study of why people think and behave as they do (Graham Weiner, n.d.). Motivation is a power that emerges with the desire and effort, driving them to reach a certain goal (Budak, 2009; Eren, 2008; Pintrich, 2003; Pintrich Schunk, 2002; Woolfolk, 1998 as cited in Uyulgan Akkuzu, 2014). Dornyei (2009) emphasized that even if individuals have a great worth of learning skills, they will not be able to reach long-term targets without motivation (Uyulgan Akkuzu, 2014). Motivation is defined as a drive to fulfill a need (Aderman, 1999; Maslow, 1954; Murray, Poole Jones, 2006 as cited in Goodman, Jaffer, Keresztesi, Mamdani, Mokgatle, Musariri, Pires Schlechter, 2011). Body There are four motivation theories which are need theories of motivation, behavior-based theories of motivation, job design theories of motivation and cognitive theories of motivation. I will be only focusing on the extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation and also the goal-setting theory under the behavior-based theories of motivation. Behavior-based theories of motivation Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation To be motivated means to be moved to do something. A person who feels no encouragement to act is therefore characterized as unmotivated, while someone who is energized toward an end is considered motivated. People have not only different amounts, but also different kinds of motivation. That is, they differ not only in level of motivation, but also in the direction of that motivation. The most basic difference is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is essentially interesting or enjoyable and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads to a discrete outcome (Ryan Deci, 2000). In defining motivation, it is important to draw a division between intrinsic motivation, which refers to engagement motivated by pleasure and extrinsic motivation, which refers to engagement motivated by external pressures (Henderlong Lepper, 2002). Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in a task for its own natural rewards whereas extrinsic motiv ation refers to engaging in a task in order to achieve some divisible outcome (Hayenga Corpus, 2010). Goal-setting theory Setting a specific hard goal versus a generalized goal of ‘do your best’ leads to extensive increases in performance. The setting of a goal that is both precise and demanding leads to an increase in performance because it makes clear to the individual what he is supposed to do (Latham and Baldes, 1975). Intention is a symbol of planned actions, whereas goal reflects the object or aim of actions. Intention is broader than goal. In goal-setting, action plans are sometimes called strategies. An objective is alike to what Garland (1985) called a task goal. The term personal goal is often used when discussing or measuring a person’s intention. Products (Naylor et al., 1980 as cited in Tubbs Ekeberg, 1991) are the direct results of actions and the focus of the objective. Both personal and environmental factors can have an effect. Personal factors are such as skills, abilities or willpower and environmental factors are such as time limits, task difficulty and the influe nce of other people moderate the intention-action relationship (Tubbs Ekeberg, 1991). So long as a person is committed to the goal, has the essential ability to attain it and does not have contradictory goals, there is a positive relationship between goal difficulty and task performance. Focusing on reaching a definite performance outcome on a new, complex task can lead to ‘tunnel vision’ – a focus on reaching the goal rather than on acquiring the skills required to reach it. Drach-Zahavy and Erez (2002) found that people who were made to view a situation as a risk achieved notably lower performance than did those who were made to view the situation as a challenge (Locke Latham, 2006). Goal setting may also help prevent dysfunctions in an organization (Austin Bobko, 1985). The theory also states that goals should be precise rather than broad. Commitment is needed to achieve goals and can be enhanced by two categories of factors that: (1) make the goal realizat ion important and (2) enhance individuals’ belief that they can accomplish the goal. People tend to prioritize goals based on their value (Locke Latham, 1990 as cited in Fried Slowik, 2004). Goal-setting theory also emphasizes that challenging goals cause people to work longer on a task (Fried Slowik, 2004). Relation of motivation to child psychology If one is motivated to do something, it really pushes them to go for it and achieve it. The level of common interest, which is formed during childhood and adolescence, affects the individual’s professional direction (Stoykova, 2013). Challenges and expected challenges of being a child psychologist The necessitate to train more child psychologists is apparent. A part of the challenge is that having inadequate resources to train the child psychologist and also to practice as a child psychologist. In pediatric settings, issue faced is related to restricted numbers of practicum spots (Clark, 2011). Nature of work of a child psychologist The main duty of clinical child psychologists is to provide therapeutic services for the wide range of cognitive, emotional, developmental, behavioral, social, medical and family problems portrayed by youth from infancy through adolescence. Clinical child psychology is a growing field of practice and research within professional psychology. Today clinical child psychologist accomplish professional roles in community programs in a diversity of settings such as community mental health centers and children’s hospitals, children’s service agencies as well as schools, juvenile justice, prevention programs, in-home intervention and outreach programs (Jackson, Alberts Roberts, 2010). The role of pediatric psychologists is: (a) instant screening for developmental difficulties; (b) early diagnosis of problems; (c) transmission of current knowledge of child development to pediatric staffs; (d) transmission of knowledge about child-rearing practices and (e) sensitization of medic al staff to the emotional needs of children (Mesibov, 1983). In Nigeria, the clinical child psychologist has three mutually dependent roles: teachers, clinician and researcher (Bakare, 1975). In Colombia, the clinical psychology works with children, adolescents and adults in both private practice and in institutions (Ardila, 1975). Ross (1972) defined the duties of clinical child psychologist as: (1) the prevention of psychological disorders and (2) the treatment of these disorders. The objective of the clinical child psychologist is to offer direct services to the child and his family, to diagnose and treat problem behaviors. Today’s clinical child psychologists use other than testing techniques for diagnosis, such as interviewing, observations of family interactions, etc., sometimes collaborating with other disciplines particularly the psychiatric social worker or the psychiatrist (Tuma, 1975). Pediatric psychologists have a significant role to play where they need to enhan ce pediatric practice by insuring that those in need of psychological services are willingly identified and treated (Willen, 2007). Maintenance of a sustainable level of motivation If one enjoys doing something or wishes to go for something they like, they must make sure they can achieve it and not giving up even though it is not easy as the saying goes ‘easier said than done’. One needs to consistently progress and remind ownself the motivating factor. Child psychology is something new, only a spark of interest can motivate one to pursue in the pathway of child psychology alongside with motivation to keep assisting the interest. Conclusion In a nutshell, the roles we play as child psychologists in the future will largely and solely depend on decisions we make now. Dreams are not easy to be achieved but we need to fight to realize our dream and goal in life. References Ardila, R. (1975). Roles of the clinical child psychologist in Colombia. Journal of Clinical  Child Psychology, 17-19. Austin, J. T. Bobko, P. (1985). Goal-setting theory: Unexplored areas and future research  needs. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 58, 289-308. Bakare, C. G. M. (1975). The clinical child psychologist in Nigeria. Journal of Clinical Child  Psychology, 47-49. Blain, D. (1946). The psychiatrist and the psychologist. Journal of Clinical Psychology. Clark, S. L. (2011). Child psychology: Training challenges and opportunities. Psynopsis, le  Magazine des psychologies du Canada-Automne, 31. Fried, Y. Slowik, L. H. (2004). Enriching goal-setting theory with time: An integrated approach. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 404-422. Goodman, S., Jaffer, T., Keresztesi, M., Mamdani, F., Mokgatle, D., Musariri, M., Pires, J.   Schlechter, A. (2011). An investigation of the relationship between students’ motivation and academic performance as mediated by effort. South African Journal of Psychology, 41(3), 373-385. Graham, S. Weiner, B. (n.d.). Theories and principles of motivation. National Science Foundation, 63-84. Hayenga, A. O. Corpus, J. H. (2010). Profiles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: A  person-centered approach to motivation and achievement in middle school. Motiv Emot, 34, 371-383. doi: 10.1007/s11031-010-9181-x. Henderlong, J. Lepper, M. R. (2002). The effects of praise on children’s intrinsic  motivation: A review and synthesis. psychological bulletin. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 774-795. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.128.5.774. Jackson, Y., Alberts, F. L. Jr. Roberts, M. C. (2010). Clinical child psychology: A practice  specialty serving children, adolescents and their families. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41, 75-81. doi: 10.1037/a0016156 Latham, G. P. Baldes, J. J. (1975). The â€Å"practical significance† of locke’s theory of goal  setting. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(1), 122-124. Locke, E. A. Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Association for  Psychological Science, 15, 265-268. Mesibov, G. B. (1983). Evolution of pediatric psychology: Historical roots to future trends.  journal of pediatric psychology. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 9(1), 3-11. Routh, D. K. (1975). The short history of pediatric psychology. Journal of Clinical Child  Psychology, 6-8. Ryan, R. M. Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and  new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020. Stoykova, Z. (2013). Social interest and motivation. Trakia Journal of Sciences, 11(3), 286-290. Tubbs, M. E. Ekeberg, S. E. (1991). The role of intentions in work motivation:  Implications for goal-setting theory and research. Academy of Management Review, 16(1), 190-199. Tuma, J. M. (1975). Pediatric psychologist†¦? Do you mean clinical child psychologist?.  Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 9-12. Uyulgan, M. A. Akkuzu, N. (2014). An overview of student teachers’ academic intrinsic  motivation. educational sciences: theory practice. Educational Consultancy and Research Center, 14(1), 24-32. doi: 10.12738/estp.2014.1.2013. Willen, E. (2007). Consultation and collaboration in the care of children and families: The  role of the pediatric psychologist. JSPN, 12(4), 290-293.

Dream Weaver

This act also ensures that nonfinancial contributions to a marriage are considered on the dissolution of the marriage, effectively achieving greater justice for women. However, many criticise this legislation for rendering divorce too easy, with 1/3 marriages ending in divorce A current focus area for law reform has been de facto families. Previously, the law did not allocate them legal recognition, as society perceived these relationships as immoral. Altering societal ethics led to their statutory recognition under the Property (Relationships) Act 1984 (NSW), granting them many of the same rights as married couples. However, whilst one party could claim maintenance upon the breakdown of a DFR, the law does not take into account future needs of the parties upon separation. The law also attempted to regulate the division of property however, less weight was given to non?financial contributions, shown in Turnbull v McGregor where the homemaker’s contribution to the property in a 32 yr relationship was valued at just 16%. This ineffectiveness was addressed with the Family Law Amendment (De Facto Financial Matters and Other Measures) Act 2008 (Cth), through enabling them to resolve their financial and parenting issues in the Family Law Court, using nationally consistent processes An important change in social attitudes has been the increasing acceptance of homosexual relationships. Statute law failed to reflect this shift in societal values, as it was changes to common law that fostered the legal recognition of same?sex couples. Various significant cases created law reform momentum, such as Hope and Brown v NIB Health Funds (1995), in which a same?sex couple successfully argued that their health fund had discriminated against them on the basis of sexual orientation, through denying them a ‘family’ status. Eventually the Property (Relationships) Amendment Act 1999 (NSW) altered the definition of a de facto relationship to non?gender specific, effectively incorporating homosexual couples. This provides protection in property division, maintenance and inheritance  © (2012) All Rights Reserved 1 of 3 For more info, go to www. scintheholidays. com. au Ongoing reform in the new millennium has attempted to eradicate all areas of discrimination, the most significant being the Miscellaneous acts Amendment (Same Sex Relationships) Bill 2008. It enabled equal parenting rights for the female partners of mothers and protected the rights of both parents upon separation. However, the modern definition of ma rriage, â€Å"the voluntary union for life of one man and woman to the exclusion of all others†, established in Hyde v Hyde and Woodmansee (1866), remains exclusive of homosexual marriages. Significantly, it is now the only point of legislative inequality between same?sex couples and other couples. For same sex couples, legal recognition of their marriage signifies the provision of adequate legal protection. Until this barrier has been overcome, justice for same?sex family members will remain unachieved. Justice for children has recently been an area of legislative focus, with an emphasis on parental responsibility. The care and protection of children has been a primary focus of law reform. Children (Equality of Status) Act 1976 (NSW) states that all children, nuptial or ex? nuptial, are treated equally under the law. Parents are prohibited from using physical force on the head or neck of the child as punishment by the Crimes Amendment (Child Protection? Physical Mistreatment) Act 2002 (NSW), which effectively saw a father in Woy Woy sentenced to a one?year good behaviour bond after excessively disciplining his child. Perhaps the most significant reform is the Family Law Amendment (Shared Parental Responsibility) Act 2006 (Cth). This law emphasises the changing nature of parental responsibility, as it enshrined the equal shared responsibility of both parents to care and protect the child as a primary objective. The government is clearly trying to move from the previous situation where over 95% of children are not in shared care Such law reforms justly place emphasis on the ‘best interests of the child’, effectively catering for their vulnerability, as well as reflecting society’s perception of parenting as a moral obligation. However, criticism has been directed at the preference for ‘shared parenting’ as it could more easily expose children to domestic violence. Furthermore, protests by Michael Fox in 2011 about the family law system’s bias against fathers, reflects the failure of the law to achieve justice for fathers. Holding up banners saying â€Å"Kids first†, Fox claimed that DOCS was a failed department. These areas of ineffectiveness highlight how the law’s emphasis on shared parenting is often more idealistic than it is effective. In the past, domestic violence (DV) has been an area where the law has failed to protect family members. Correlating with growing societal concerns, the law recognised DV as a crime under the Crimes (Domestic Violence) Amendment Act 1982 (NSW). Furthermore, the laws just recognition of the effects of DV is noted in the use of ‘battered women’s syndrome’ as a defence for murder. The recent introduction of the Domestic Violence Intervention Court Model improves the response of the criminal justice system to victims of DV, requiring police to immediately begin investigating and apply for an ADVO on hearing a DV report. This has been effective, with BOSCAR evaluating â€Å"victims reported that they were very satisfied with the police response†¦ they felt safe†. Ineffectively however, many are still victim to DV. R v. Aytugral (2009) revealed the law’s inability to protect Ms Bayrak from being murdered by her ex?partner. Furthermore, recent media reports state that DV has increased 3. 3% in Sydney. The use of birth technologies represents a contemporary issue concerning family law. The Artificial conception Act 1984 (NSW) states that the biological mother and her partner are the legal parents, protecting families that choose to undergo these procedures. However, the law has been widely condemned for being too slow in addressing many of the ethical issues in this area, such as the question of ownership of frozen embryos in case of both parent’s deaths. A major concern is the lack of legislation regarding